Open Society
The term "open society" is widely recognized, particularly in political philosophy and related fields. Its meaning is primarily associated with the work of two key thinkers: Henri Bergson and Karl Popper.
Here's a breakdown of what it means:
Henri Bergson's Conception:
In his 1932 book, The Two Sources of Morality and Religion, Bergson contrasted an "open society" with a "closed society." A closed society is characterized by:
- Tribalism and exclusion: Emphasis on solidarity within the group and suspicion or hostility towards outsiders.
- Static morality: Based on social pressure and habit, focused on preserving the group.
- Closed religion: Focused on maintaining social cohesion through ritual and tradition.
An open society, on the other hand, is characterized by:
- Universalism: Openness to all human beings and a move towards universal moral principles.
- Dynamic morality: Inspired by exceptional individuals (prophets, sages) and driven by creative emotions like love and sympathy.
- Open religion: Rooted in mystical experience and a connection to a life force that transcends the group.
Bergson saw democracy as the political system most aligned with the principles of an open society. Karl Popper's Conception:
Popper further developed the concept in his influential 1945 book, The Open Society and Its Enemies. He defined an open society as one characterized by:
- Individual freedom and responsibility: Individuals are confronted with personal decisions, as opposed to being bound by rigid tribal or collectivist norms.
- Critical thinking and tolerance: Emphasis on the importance of reason, open debate, and the acceptance of diverse viewpoints. No one possesses a monopoly on truth.
- Democratic governance: Institutions that allow for reform and leadership change without violence (in contrast to "closed societies" where change often requires revolution).
- Rule of law: A framework of laws that protect individual rights and liberties.
- Distinction between natural and man-made law: Recognizing that social customs and laws are created by humans and can be changed.
Popper saw totalitarian ideologies like communism and fascism as enemies of the open society because they claim to possess ultimate truth and suppress dissent.
In summary, an open society is generally understood as a society that values individual freedom, critical thought, tolerance, democratic principles, and the rule of law. It is a society that is open to new ideas, welcomes diverse perspectives, and has mechanisms for peaceful change.
The term is also strongly associated with the Open Society Foundations, founded by George Soros, which support civil society groups around the world working to promote democracy, human rights, and justice. These foundations explicitly draw their name and mission from Popper's concept.